Philosophical Definition of Justice: The Role of Accounting

Philosophical Definition of Justice: The Role of Accounting What is Justice? Justice means different things to different people. It is very much a culturally determined concept that requires an innate understanding of a particular person or group of people. For the purpose of this research paper justice is defined as the judgment and process involved with making something that is wrong or bad, right and good. Justice helps us as a society distinguish wrong from right and corrects what is wrong by making it right. But what is right and what is wrong? What is fair and what is just? If something is wrong or unfair, how should society make it right? Such questions have been asked since the beginnings of human interaction. Perhaps under a monarchy justice, for right or wrong, is more easily determined as it is simply what the supreme ruler (or monarch) feels is just or fair. Under a monarchy or aristocratic rule, there is only one ruler and what that individual feels is right, just, or fair, simply is and often cannot be questioned. However, within the realm of more contemporary political systems such as democracy, the ideology of justice, while arguably more fair, can be much more difficult to establish and understand. Democracy, at least in theory, grants the power to the people and therefore places the burden of justice or defining what is fair or equal upon the masses. Since different people have different belief systems they are often in disagreement on what is right or what is fair and have differences of opinion when it comes to justice. Without the aristocracy, justice becomes a very argumentative and ambiguous concept. Philosophy, the Various Schools of Thought, and their Influence on the Ideology of Justice Disagreements over what is fair (or just) have been around since the beginning of time, almost certainly since the very first of human interactions. At first glance we probably think we have a fairly uniform understanding of what justice might or should be. For example if someone commits premeditated first degree murder, most would probably agree the individual should be jailed and, depending on your belief system, either face a life sentence in jail or the death penalty. If someone embezzles money from their company, most would insist the individual should be forced to make restitution and face additional criminal or civil penalty. But even in the seemingly straightforward examples above, and within the realm of a relatively homogenous audience (those reading this paper), one can already start to see how complicated the ideology of justice can be. For example, some have very strong feelings about the death penalty and insist that no crime, even murder, would justify ending another persons life. Additionally, some feel that crimes such as embezzlement are a form of victimless crime and would never warrant a punishment as severe as jail time since no one individual had been harmed. (Hanlin 2004, pp. 527) Within the relatively straightforward scenarios above, one can already begin to imagine the diversity of opinions as to what is just and fair. Should the murder be murdered? Should the embezzler be jailed? What if he only stole the money to pay for chemotherapy for his dying wife? Luckily, numerous philosophers and historians have provided us with rich literature that helps us decipher the complex ideology of justice. In fact, it is only after studying and critically evaluating several of these philosophers, their different schools of ethical and moral thought, and the way they define justice that one can start to understand the differences in perceptions of justice around the world. The next sections provide brief introductions into several of the various schools of ethical and moral thought and provide some insight into the individual philosophers that have undoubtedly helped to shape ours and others understanding of justice. It is only after considering the various schools of thought that we can start to understand the differences in the perception of justice that exist around the world. Utilitarianism Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) was a utilitarian and insisted that justice is doing what will produce the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. (Justice a Reader pg. 9) The utilitarian school of thought considers the principle of utility as the basis of moral law. Bentham defines utility as whatever promotes pleasure or prevents pain. (Justice A Reader pg. 9) The major criticism / objection to Benthams utilitarian principals come from the perspective that maximum utility, or collective happiness, may come at the expense of violating individual rights. (Justice A Reader pg. 9) In order to refute some of the criticisms of Benthams utilitarianism, John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) argued that the idea of justice rests ultimately on utilitarian considerations but also requires a respect for individual rights. (Justice A Reader pg. 9) But even with Mills approach to justice, it becomes extremely difficult to choose and/or decipher between individual rights and the majority or maximum utility. This often leaves us with questions of where to draw the line between the greatest good for the majority and the protection of individual rights. Libertarianism Milton Friedman and other libertarian thinkers were advocates of free markets and critics of government regulation. (Justice A Reader pg. 49) Underlying their (libertarians) laissez-faire stance is the idea that each of us has a fundamental right to liberty – a right to do whatever we want with the things we own, provided we do not violate other peoples rights to do the same. (Justice A Reader pg. 49) Contrary to utilitarian thought, libertarians would never sacrifice individual rights for maximum utility or the benefit of the majority. According to the Libertarians, only a minimal government is necessary. In essence the government should only be put in place such that it enforces contracts, protects private property, and keeps the peace. (Justice A Reader pg. 49) Justice would ensure that we own ourselves and the fruits of our labor, and therefore, as the proprietors of our own person, each of us has the right to decide what to do with our bodies and our labor, with the money we earn, and the goods we possess. (Justice A Reader pg. 49) Justice would be the protection of those rights as well as the individual rights of others. The biggest challenges to libertarian policy usually come in the form of paternalist and/or redistributive laws. Paternalist and redistributive laws typically are enacted such that a society can tax the rich to help the poor. While utilitarian principles strongly favor such laws, Libertarians typically argue that such laws are a form of coerced charity that makes every person the property (perhaps even the slave) of the majority. (Justice A Reader pg. 49) Pure Libertarianism teaches that welfare is a violation of individual rights. Liberationists believe that while the poor should have every right to better themselves, that right should not come at the expense of anyones individual right to what they own or produce. Egalitarian A third school of thought that attempts to define the role of justice in society is egalitarianism. John Rawls (1921-2002) was often described as an egalitarian liberal (Justice A Reader pg. 263) and defined justice as fairness. Rawls believed that justice is a social contract in which people come together to choose the basic principles that will govern their society and proposed that the way to think about justice is to ask what principles would be chosen by people who came together behind a veil of ignorance that temporarily deprived them of any knowledge about where they would wind up in society. (Justice A Reader pg. 203) Accordingly, Rawls moral reasoning requires us to be abstract from the particular circumstances in which we find ourselves (Justice A Reader pg. 203), and justice is the first virtue of social institutions, as truth is of systems of thought. (Justice A Reader pg. 203) Rawls rejected utilitarianism and believed that certain individual rights are so fundamental that utilitarian considerations should not override them. (Justice A Reader pg. 203) However, contrary to Freidman and the libertarians, Rawls did not believe that the results of a free market are necessarily fair and was not opposed to the taxation of the privileged to help the poor. In Rawls opinion it would be acceptable, under certain circumstances, to take from the privileged as long as it were helping the underprivileged. Accounting and Justice Regardless of how you define justice or what school of thought you most closely relate to, it is clear the accountant plays a significant role in the establishment and preservation of justice for society. Accounting is the language of business (Bloomfield, 2008) and without it justice cannot exist. Since the beginnings of specialization, when humans stopped being self sufficient and started specializing, bartering, and trading, accounting has become a critical part of human interaction. In todays society accountants serve in many roles critical to the defense and preservation of justice. For example, in the U.S., IRS accountants ensure that citizens pay the appropriate amount of tax, forensic accountants provide investigative services for criminal and civil proceedings, and many of the FBIs anti-terrorist agents use their accounting backgrounds to trace terrorist funding. History of the Spanish Empire One only has to look back a few hundred years to see a perfect example of how the role of an accountant can protect and help preserve, or fail to protect and preserve, an entire civilization. In his book For Good and Evil – The Impact of Taxes on the Course of Civilization, Charles Adams describes how tax fraud lead to the demise of one of the largest and most wealthy empires found in modern times – Imperial Spain. Around the time Christopher Columbus discovered the new world (the 14th and 15th centuries), the Spanish Empire was the strongest empire in the world which has never been equaled in terms of size or money. (Hanlin 2004, pp. 529) It controlled significant portions of Europe, the Americas, Africa, Asia, and Oceania (Australia and the Pacific Islands), and at its peak Spains conquered overseas empire was the largest the world has ever known. (Hanlin 2004, pp. 529) However, in the 17th century the vast empire started to disintegrate. Contrary to conventional wisdom, it was not the English fleet defeating the Spanish Armada that brought down the Empire, rather it was tax evasion and revolt by the masses against the patronage system that ultimately lead to the bankruptcy of the empire. After several revolts from within the empire, and long civil war, the Spanish Empire was forced to increase taxes to pay soldiers to put down the various rebellions. As a result, many of the people in the colonies engineered what was probably the best system of fraud and evasion that history has ever known. (Hanlin 2004, pp. 530) When the Spanish authorities tried to tax goods that passed through the major ports, the Spanish businessmen created complicated schemes to have silver and gold shipped to alternate ports away from the customs officials, even laundering it through foreign countries. (Hanlin 2004, pp. 530) In order to avoid the Royal Fifth – a 20% cu stoms tax and a 35% convoy tax on good from the colonies, the Spanish businessmen transformed commerce into one massive smuggling operation by avoiding the authorities and therefore the taxes. (Hanlin 2004, pp. 530) The Empire tried to stop the smuggling and division of money and goods away from the taxing authorities but simply did not have the means to control and stop the smuggling and tax evasion. As a result, the overseas empire could not defend itself and stealing the colonies of Spain became an international sport as most of the colonies were lost to the British, Dutch, and eventually the United States. Contemporary Accounting and Justice Given its role as the language of business, accountings integral role in society continues to grow as global economies grow and become increasingly interconnected. World GDP has grown from $1.34 trillion in 1960 to $60.6 trillion in 2008. (The World Bank, 2009). The Association of Certified Fraud Examiners estimates that in the U.S. 7% of total GPD is lost to fraud and injustice. (ACFE, 2008) When applied to a global GPD of $60.6 trillion loses resulting from fraud and injustices are estimated to have been $994 billion in 2008. $994 billion is a staggering number but in fact may be understated as many developing countries face an even higher percentage of fraud due to the lack of infrastructure and the ability to combat fraud. According the Corruption Perception Index (CPI), the U.S. ranks 19th (with 1st indicating the least amount of corruption) out of 182 countries surveyed for the amount of perceived corruption within a particular country indicating that, on a global scale, losses probably well exceed the trillion dollar mark annually. So who is best equipped to protect and defend the innocent from the injustices of fraud? The answer is simple, the accountants around the world. Accountants understand the language of business better than anyone and therefore are best suited to be the defenders of justice and fight the injustices that exist across the globe. Just or unjust, they may have even been able to preserve the Spanish Empire. Distributive Justice Another manner in which accountants play an integral role in society is through distributive justice. Utilitarian principles have led to many governments and societal systems that incorporate and rely upon paternalist or redistributive laws. For example, the U.S. and many other countries tax their wealthy citizens and use the funds to run social support programs for the poor such as welfare, unemployment, section 8 housing, etc. Such programs are a form of distributed justice. Robert Nozick describes distributive justice as follows: In contemporary political theory, distributive justice is primarily about the allocation of income, wealth, and opportunity. (Justice A Reader pg. 263) If distributive justice does represent the allocation of income and wealth, than who other than that accountant, who understands the language of business and taxation, would be best equipped to establish and preserve distributed justice? Another example of distributive justice and the role that an accountant plays is the concept of price gauging. Michael Sandel uses a great example in his teachings at Harvard when discussing the events that often transpire in the aftermath of a hurricane. Often, in the days following a major hurricane, for example Hurricane Charley in 2004 and Hurricane Katrina in 2005, local retailers charge prices for common goods such as bags of ice and gas powered generators in excess of 1000% of their normal price. (Justice, 2009) Should such practices be considered simply the effects of supply and demand or is it injustice on the part of the retailer in the form of price gauging? Regardless of your opinion on price gauging laws, it is evident the accountant is best equipped to understand and determine whether or not price gauging exists and how to best allocate monies. Who other than the accountant would understand all the transactions taking place between retailers and consumers? In both cases above, the enforcement of paternalistic laws and analysis of price gauging activities, accountants are the ones that ensure monies are appropriately being collected and allocated, thereby defending justice as a society sees fit. Justice and the Role of the Accountant Globally Increasingly, corporations and businesses are taking on the global environment. This requires that accountants and auditors be able to identify the different risks associated with international interconnectedness and be able counteract these risks with the necessary precautions. The global environment adds additional complications for the role of the accountant and actually increases the responsibilities as the defender of justice. In a global spectrum, there are many different laws and regulations and thus, the role of the accountant changes depending on the environment in which the rules are generated. Culture is a huge influence on accounting regulation. Additionally, culture is intertwined within the market and political forces that help to shape the resulting accounting system. The different interaction of these forces in an environment helps to determine the place of the accountant in the economic system, which has a direct effect on the accountants role as the defender of just ice. Justice can only prevail in a society that embraces it. Perceived levels of corruption can be indicative of the state of the economy of a particular country which can help to define or determine the role of the accountant. If there are very few cases of fraud, but high levels of corruption perception it can be an indication that the appropriate level of justice is not being achieved. If enforcement of laws and regulation is inconsistent then a tougher approach may be needed to combat corruption. Transparency International states that in order to minimize corruption there needs to be strong oversight by governments, law enforcement, media, and the society. If a country is lacking oversight, corruption can continue to get worse. As a result, the role of the accountant in these environments would be limited since rules, laws, and regulations are not embraced and enforced. Regulation is only part of the battle. Change will only be effective if it comes from a commitment that is made by businesses and governments of all sizes. Stronger institutional oversight is needed across the world. There needs to be strict legal frameworks and more alert regulation by enforcement agencies in addition to accountants and auditors that ensure lower levels of corruption. As noted in an article issues by Transparency International, persistently high corruption in low-income countries amounts to an ongoing humanitarian disaster. According to the CPI index, China has improved over last year showing that their efforts to reduce corruption by enacting reforms, the implementation of forceful investigation, and intense sentencing have created less perceptions of corruption than before, but still remains a very serious problem. Norways score indicates that as a result of some serious scandals that have emerged over the last few years there is a significant problem in the private and public sectors. However, a growing number of cases being investigated and prosecuted demonstrates that they are at least trying to make headway. Italy is declining in the corruption index because of severe fraud and corruption that exist in the public health system and because of the recent arrests of politicians and public officials in the Abruzzo region. France also has also seen several cases of public officials that were connected to corrupt activities surface recently. Somalia, having the lowest CPI score highlights that there is a link between economic and political collapse. Additionally, Iraqs score of 1.3 shows the importance of establishing solid and functioning institutions capable of preventing corruption and implementing the rule of law. In all cases, the examples provide insight and indicate a need for regulation and an increased role for accountants because justice is not being found. Accounting Regulation Globally Accounting rules can indicate a lot about a country. Accounting rules are created in such a way that they fit the environment that they exist in, which varies across countries and cultures. If society wishes to protect the investor, the accounting system will have disclosure rules that enable investors to gain information and protect themselves. While some countries are developing regulations that contain investor protection improvements, in many cases much more work needs to be done. The manner in which markets function and the way politics are conducted greatly affect accounting systems and often lead to drastic differences across countries. The role of the accountant and, furthermore, the way that justice is enforced will also vary greatly amongst countries. Common law countries differ from codified law countries because common law countries have an independent body to interpret the law. Accounting rules in common law countries are determined by the private sector and require lengthy disclosure since there are no close relationships with corporations. However, code law countries require that corporations be heavily involved the government. The government often includes banks, labor unions, and major suppliers in rule-making decisions. As a result, transactions in these countries tend to be focused more on private information. There are institutional differences between all countries. Institutional differences enable economic and accounting systems to differ, thus the role of the accountant and the justice that results will differ amongst these countries. Accounting regulation in Germany allows more discretion on the accountant because it is written in more general terms. However, in France the regulation is more rigid, enables less discretion, and thus provides less wiggle room on the part of corporations. In Switzerland there are very few disclosure requirements, which can facilitate the reporting of smooth earnings through the usage of hidden reserves. Further, some accounting systems are difficult to compare because they do not fit within any particular mold. For example, the accounting system in Finland was created specifically for use by the foresting industry. By looking at international comparisons of accounting systems, it is evident there is no single way of performing accounting. As a result, the accounting rules are different and change to become an integral part of the markets and politics of each country and culture. Market demand affects the financial statements because the corporations must pay to prepare them. The political environment is important because the government has the ability to control regulators and possibly interfere with regulation. In order to perform and understand the different accounting processes, accountants must be aware of the different forces that exist in a particular country. By being aware of the different forces, accountants will be able to more aptly ensure that justice prevails in the country they operate. As evidenced above, accounting regulations vary across countries, time, and cultures which causes significant variations in the role of the accountant. While countries have been extending efforts to strengthen accounting rules and oversight, this alone cannot and will not prevent future fraud. (Leuz, 2002). But there are many benefits to implement strong laws and enforcement in order to protect shareholders rights. U.S. firms are not the only ones experiencing problems, as many firms globally are suffering from accounting irregularities. Some countries experience self-dealings and misappropriations of profits because of weaker legal measures. Weak legal measures create a greater incentive to manipulate the financial statements to conceal poor business performance. Manipulation is less apparent in places where outside investors have legal rights to vote out corrupt managers. However, manipulation is predominant in places like Austria, Italy, Germany, Southeast Asia, South Korea and Ta iwan, because they do not have investor protection. East Asian Perspective The East Asian countries, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand can help accountants see the way that accounting standards interact with the incentives of managers and auditors. (Ball, Ashok, et al, Incentives versus standards) The accounting standards in these countries come from a common law environment. Common law countries generally create high quality financial reporting. However, in these countries the preparers incentives generate low quality financial statements. The preparer incentives again, depend on the market and political forces and how these forces interact with one another. Market forces are dependent on the demand for high-quality financial reporting. The political forces depend on the government involvement in the creation and enforcement of the regulation. The interaction of these forces with the accounting system can drastically change the role of the accountant in these countries. The standards themselves are viewed as high-quality, but the institutional s tructure creates incentives for preparers incentives to issue low-quality financial reports. Financial reporting in East Asia generally exists with an incentive structure that is similar to a code-law model. However, the East Asian countries do not follow that model. Their governments have code-law reporting incentive features, but also have indications that the environment reduces the financial reporting quality. The large amount of family-owned businesses and enterprises is a cause for the low need of quality financial statements. One family generally owns investments that are inter-related. These networks are commonly referred to guanxi networks. These networks attempt to take away the demand of required disclosures and timely loss recognition and it also reduces the communication required with stakeholders. The extent of government involvement in the standard setting and the financial reporting practice differs across these countries. Political factors can create an incentive to hide large profits and losses. The political environments in these East Asian countries have a tendency to want companies to succeed, so they recommend companies hide losses. They also are afraid of other countries becoming involved in their practices because they do not want to be held accountable for any misstatements. The companies are also expected to report smooth earnings, which reinforces the desire to report, cover, and hide losses. Litigation is minimal in these countries since there is a large incentive to hide earnings, which the government reinforces. There have been very few cases of judicial actions in these countries. Audit quality in these countries is poor primarily due to lack of auditor independence. The influence and independence of the accounting profession is an indicator of ineffective enf orcement of accounting standards. Considering the financial incentives for managers and auditors there is a greater incentive for reduced timeliness and conservatism in accounting earnings. Fraud is continuing to go undetected in Hong Kong. Although there is a 22% incidence of fraud, much more is expected to be going on given the different forces that are currently having an effect on the country. As a result, currently more scrutiny is being given to the monitoring of financial transactions and corporations are beginning to make it a priority. There are currently programs that are offered for certification in forensic accounting, which is having an impact on fraud detection. Most of the fraud cases that exist in Hong Kong are internet banking fraud, computer fraud, misuse of corporations credit card, and electronic funds transfer fund. There is a need for more forensic accountants in Singapore in order to ensure sufficient justice as many significant fraud cases are going undetected. Two important fraud cases involved Fibrechem Technologies and Oriental Century. In the Fibrechem Technologies audit, Ernst Young Singapore were not certain of the cash and trade debtor balance. KPMG had the same problem with Oriental Century. Another notable case is one in which a Singapore monk, who was in charge of Singapores well-known charities, received 10 months in prison for committing fraud. In Malaysia, the role of accounting in the fight for justice is very small. Crimes are beginning to become more and more complicated and controlled but forensic accounting is viewed as a service that only larger companies can afford. This makes catching fraud more difficult. Cases that are investigated are generally handled by the Bukit Aman Commercial Crime Division. This group was able to catch a large fraud that involved the CEO and two others of Transmile Group Bhd for publishing misleading financial statements and has often been called Malaysias Enron. Fraud and forensic accounting is a relatively new topic in Thailand. According to an Ernst Youngs global survey, more than half of the companies in Thailand have suffered significant fraud. The management of the corporations was responsible for over half while employees ranked second, responsible for 45% of the fraud incidents reported. Asset misappropriation was the biggest concern. (MPA Program: Forensic accounting project) The commercial crimes in Thailand are becoming more and more complicated and organized. Forensic accounting is used to combat this to an extent, but is only utilized in the public sector. It is also noted in Thailand that there remains an enormous amount of well documented corruption related to the government amounting to billions of US dollars. There are many cases where Thailands auditor general, Jaruvan Maintaka, was able to bring about cases against members of the government but there are even more cases linked to the military involving loans from politicia ns. Chinese Perspective This accounting profession is still at the early stage of development in China, and a lack of skilled professionals creates problems for regulators. To a large extent the accounting standards and practices in China lack conservatism Doupnik and Perera note in their International Accounting textbook. There are also no sound interpretations of the relevant requirements that need to be implemented to have an effective accounting system. The theory of true and fair presentation and transparency may not be clearly understood by Chinese accountants. Until the 1980s, those who carried out accounting work were not held in high regard which had a very negative effect on the development of the accounting profession in China. Unlike in other countries, accounting and auditing have taken different paths in their development as rival disciplines with the support of different government agencies. However, there has been some growth in the accounting profession due to the recent economic reform pro gram and the demand for financial information from investors has increased. There are many fraud cases evident in China. One high-profile case that deserves mentioning was with Zhu Xiaohua who was the chairman of state-owned company, Everbright Group. Zhu was convicted to 15 years in prison for taking $500,000 in bribes. These bribes were taken between 1997 and 1999. The bribes were for the purchase of shares in a company that resulted in large losses. Another example of fraud in China was when a business woman, Du Yimin, was sentenced to death for running a Ponzi scheme that cheated investors out of YUAN700m ($102 million). (Lin, 2009) According to Lin, the Chinese Ministry of Public Security has been stepping up such prosecutions and says there are now 1,416 similar cases open, involving YUAN10bn ($1.5 billion) in investors money. In China it is still possible to receive the death penalty for fund-raising fraud, however, if a Chinese person is charged with collecting money illegally from private investors, the maximum sentence is 10 years in prison. In Chi na is evident that ethics are not being followed across the board. Japanese Perspective Japan also differs from other cultures and has a different role of the accountant and effectively different need for justice. The Japanese attitudes towards external auditors and the audit function are different from others. This is due to the cultural value orientation of not trusting someone from outside the group. Companies are not under pressure from their main providers of finance to disclose information publicly and companies are reluctant to provide information voluntarily. As a result, the a

Human Resourse Management Essay -- GCSE Business Marketing Coursework

HRM Human Resource Management: How Groups Behave Differently ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR AND ANALYSIS COURSE ASSIGNMENT QUESTION 2 IN WHAT WAYS DO GROUPS BEHAVE DIFFERENTLY FROM INDIVIDUALS? This essay will attempt to answer the above question by not only studying the conduct of individuals and groups in a work context, but also by looking at the causes of behaviour. Organisational behaviour theories, experiments and case studies will be used to investigate the behaviour of first the individual and then the group in a work environment. The term "group" for the purposes of this assignment as been defined as a formal group which has been established by an organisation at a point in time in with the purpose of achieving a specified goal. Although it is noted that many friendship and informal groupings do develop. When both the behaviour of the individual and the group have been assessed, a discussion will be made as to how these behavioural patterns differ, why they differ and to what extent they differ. Individual Behaviour. There are many theories of human behaviour used for the purposes of management and these are constantly being updated. Traditional management thinking focuses on the idea that in order to understand how a person will act in a given set of circumstances, individuals motives have to be assessed. A more modern approach looks at the individuals: abilities, personality, personality traits, ethics and culture. Traditional View In earlier models it was first assumed that people were basically the same, that they had the same wants and needs. Leavitt [1] suggested that there are certain generalisations, which are useful in predicting human behaviour. In order to illustrate these generalisations he asked this question, "What are the fundamental, unexceptionally truths of human behaviour?" Some of the answers he found included: People are products of their environment. People want security. All people want is bread and butter. People are fundamentally lazy. People are fundamentally selfish. Pe ople want the chance to show what they can do. Although many of the answers that were received were contradictory, Leavitt believed that at another level the contradiction disappears and that there are three basic assumptions that can be made... ...ery differentially than it's separate individuals. In many cases a student's own individual traits; ability, personality, values and ethics and culture, the elements which would normally govern their work behaviour have been cancelled out by the group process of norms. In the Southwestern example - before the introduction of effected behaviour, the majority of students conformed to the new level of work habits and conduct, and the variance in sales levels decreased and the average sales levels increased. Hopefully this essay has now highlighted that groups can behave differently from individuals, showed the ways in which the behaviour can vary and the reasons for yet been mentioned is to what extent the behaviour differs. This is very subjective and difficult to assess. Can you put an actual figure on the benefits or disadvantages of working in a group? This is maybe an area for future research. Bibliography Brewer M and Miller N (1996) Intergroup Relations Fincham and Rhodes (1999) Principals of Organisational Behaviour Huczynski and Buchanan (1991) Organisational Behaviour Hunt J (1992) Managing People at Work Leavitt H (1972) Managerial Psychology Makin P, Cooper C, Cox

The Impact of Divorce on Children

The impact of divorce on children Angela Smith PSYC 210 James Varland Liberty University The impact of divorce on children The days of complete families that include mom, dad, the household pet, and several children hardly exist. These families have now been replaced with an increasing number of single parent households due to the increasing divorce rate since the 1970’s. (Price & McKenry, 1988) What kind of impact does divorce play on children under the age of 18 years old today. As we journey into this research, we will see many things that effect children not only emotionally, but spiritually, physically, and mentally.Each of these problems can carry over to adulthood. What we may not realize is that divorce could affect everything up into adulthood of a child. Emotional scars could be left for life. The children are the ones that are left to suffer the most due to divorce. There is so much research on this topic. That alone shows that children are suffering in so many ways due to divorced parents. Divorce is a very stressful experience for any child, regardless of their age. Over half of American children will witness the breakup of a parent’s marriage.Among the millions of children who have seen their parents divorce, did you know that one in ten children will also go through three or more parental marriages? (The Abolition of Marriage, Gallagher) The death of a parent is less devastating on a child than a divorce. There are several areas and stages of pain that is dealt with within a child at the beginning of a divorce. They feel very vulnerable, they feel powerless over the situation, and they have feelings of anger and of course several feeling of guilt. Parents’ sensitivity to their child’s needs has to be a priority in the adjustment of the divorce.Then you need to consider the child’s age also. A preschooler’s reaction and an adolescent’s reaction will be very different from each other. Preschoolerâ₠¬â„¢s tend to be emotionally needy. They have fears related to abandonment, and may display acting-out behaviors. They are likely to become distressed during visit exchanges. (http://cpancf. com/articles_files/efffectsdivorceonchildren. asp) Children from ages 6 to 8 will likely fantasize about their parents but yet are less likely to blame themselves for the divorce.Then children ages 9 to 12 will have a better understanding of their parents divorce and the situation but yet may take the sides with one of the parents. Although adolescents understand and comprehend the divorce of their parents, they are faced with the divorce experience and also their own identities. Adolescents seem to mature more quickly after a divorce. They will take on more responsibilities at home; they learn to appreciate things like an allowance a lot more, and they also learn to gain insight into relationships with others.But on the other hand, they could be drawn into taking on the role of the parent and n ot be able to develop relationships with their own peers. According to research, there are many different approaches that you could take when talking to your children about the divorce. There are definitely ways of saying things at their level and ways to try and make it easier on that individual child. One thing that you have to remember is that there is no best age for a child for divorcing parents. One main thing that you have got to be sure and tell your child is that it isn’t their fault.Children seem to think, especially the younger ones that if I act better or get better grades in school, maybe mommy and daddy won’t be mad at me and leave me. Letting that child know that it isn’t their fault is very crucial for the child. It is very important to let that child know that both parents will still be a part of their lives. When talking to your child about the divorce, you need to keep your emotions under control. If the child sees that you are upset, that wil l also make them upset and the whole situation can be more complicated. Never, never speak negatively about your spouse in front of the child.Your child will need to know a reason but not all of the details. Negativity can cause your child to resent your spouse or you. Children are use to a routine. They will need to know what all will be changing in their life. The children need security. Put your differences aside and get along for the child’s sake. Always listen to your child or children and encourage your child or children to express their feelings. Children have problems finding words to express how they feel. Take the time to help your child understand what they are feeling. And allow the child to be honest.Reassure them that no matter what they have to say or how they are feeling, that neither of these are wrong. That it is okay for them to express themselves. While knowing what to say to a child when talking about divorce there are also things that should not be said when talking to them. Never try to buy your child’s love. Buying the child stuff will only make them feel good temporarily. That feeling will wear off. A child would rather have their parent’s undivided attention in opportunities and joys in life. Nothing can take the place of the love of a parent.The most important thing that I think that a couple should think of first is not to give up on your marriage. There are many alternatives to giving up and letting it end in divorce. (http://www. marriage-success-secrets. com/talking-to-your-child-about-divorce. html ) Statistics are done for very valuable purposes. As I bring some of these statistics to light for you, I think that you will be rather amazed. Children of divorce are at a greater risk to experience injury, asthma, headaches and speech defects than children whose parents have remained married.Children living with both biological parents are 20 to 35 percent more physically healthy than children from broken homes. (Journal of Marriage and Family) Teenagers in single-parent families and in blended families are three times likely to need psychological help within a year. A study of children six years after a parental breakup revealed that even after all that time, these children tended to be lonely, unhappy, anxious and insecure. (Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry) These statistics are surely frightful. And people and politics wonder why our American culture is so messed up.Families today doesn’t seem to believe in morals and they especially do not see the importance of what marriage is all about. God gave us a mate to be with forever. The instructions that God has given us in the Bible are very clear about marriage and divorce. In 1 Corinthians 7:10-14 says, â€Å"I command the married-not I, but the Lord- a wife is not to leave her husband. But if she does leave she must remain unmarried or reconciled to her husband- and a husband is not to leave this wife. But I (not the Lord) say to the rest: if any brother has an unbelieving wife and she is willing to live with him, he must not leave her.Also if any woman has an unbelieving husband and he is willing to live with her, she must not leave her husband. For the unbelieving husband is set apart for God by the wife, and the unbelieving wife is set apart for God by the husband. Otherwise, your children will be corrupt, but now they are set apart for God. (Christian Standard Bible) Another passage that Jesus talks about in the Bible about marriage and divorce and makes Himself very clear about it is in Matthew 19:5 & 9,†(5)For this reason a man will leave his father and mother and be joined to his wife, and the two will become one flesh. 9) And I tell you, whoever divorces his wife, except for sexual immorality, and marries another, commits adultery. † (Christian Standard Bible) This passage sums it all up on divorce. If you are considering divorce and do live by the Bible , I think that there are several things that you need to see and think about according to God’s standard before you actually divorce. This should be considered only in light of the most basic principles of scripture. Is the motive for the divorce Godly? Has the spouse sought advice of wise counselors? Is the divorce a last resort action to be taken?If humans today still lived by God’s standards, the divorce rate and all the problems that follow divorce would not be the way they were. There are so many people that divorce affects and to be greedy and only think of ones own self is inhuman. Even is you have failed with your marriage, there are ways that you can succeed with your divorce. Divorce and all the complications that come along with it can have a significant impact on the well being and development of both children and adolescents. The consequences of divorce can and will impact almost all areas of a child’s life.That not only includes the parent and chil d relationship but also the child’s behavior, emotions, coping skills, and psychological development. No wonder that there is a high demand for mental health professionals and other child specialists. As we have looked at statistics and some ways for the parents to deal with the divorce for the children’s sake, let’s put ourselves in the children’s shoes. What do you think is actually going through their mind? What questions do you think that they are thinking about and wanting to ask?According to the University of Missouri, these are some questions and thoughts that are probably going through a child’s mind during their parents divorce. I need both of you to stay involved in my life. I need letters, phone calls, and lots of questions asked to me. Please don’t fight and work hard to get along with each other. Try to agree on matters that relate to me. When you fight about me, I think that I have done something wrong. Please don’t ask me to send messages back and forth between the two of you. Please remember that I depend on both of you to raise me and to be a part of my life.I need both of you to teach me what is important and to help me when I have problems. Take a minute to imagine just what all goes on in a child’s mind when divorce happens. It is truly a sad situation. Now let’s turn the tables and take a look at some of the positive effects of divorce and children. Now that sounds crazy, right. That is what I thought also until I read some research done on this particular topic. Being a child of divorced parents and looking back, I can actually see some of the benefits that have been seen in the research.Of course no child wants to see their parents gets divorced but if you think about it no child wants to see their parent’s constantly fighting either. If there is any kind of abuse in the relationship, you could actually be hurting your children more by staying together. Children who ha ve gone through divorce with their parents could reap the benefits of spending one on one time with each parent. Despite the difficulties of divorce, the one on one time is a great bonding opportunity for parents and children to experience. (http://www. helium. om/items/1355536-what-are-positive-effects-divorce-children) Just think about it for a minute. The quality time that each parent is able to spend with their child or children is actually increased after a divorce.The total focus of the parent on the child is much more valued now. Children can grow healthy in many types of divorce situations if the three key following conditions are met: first, the basic needs for the children must be met, such as love and physical care, understanding, discipline and safety; second, the children need a sense of belonging or being able to say, his is my family where I am important and a special person; and finally, they also need role models of both sexes in their lives to help them determine t heir proper male and female roles. (http://www. jesuschristismygod. com/index2b. html) Some female children come out of divorce growing into exceptionally good young women. It seems that girls and women strive on more responsibilities and challenges. They connect with their mothers and have deep ties with them. Child psychologist agree that keeping the strength of extended family intact is one of the best ways to provide a good structure for children to deal with divorce.In addition, when both parents have the full support of family and friends that were connected to the kids during the marriage that provides resources to turn to when things get difficult as the adults try to figure out how life as a divorced couple should work with kids. (http://www. articlesbase. com/divorce-articles/the-positive-effects-of-divorce-on-children-2745699. html) It is very important that the parents celebrate certain days, such as birthdays, and holidays, together with their children.This can and will show their children that there are values to be taken and at the same time show the role of a true mother and father relationship. As I sit here and think over all the research and statistics that I have read about and then think about my own situation as a child of divorce, I can identify with several of the characteristics that have been studied. First thing that comes to my mind was how my mom and dad handle the situation of divorce, They would talk bad about the other one in front of me and it seemed as if they were trying to win sides with me when actually all I wanted was both of their love.There was always arguing and fighting in front of me and my brothers which also caused me to grow up with a lot of hostility in me. Everything I did for years was prone to fighting and anger. I remember being took from my house to where my dad would stay for certain weekends and holidays and I all wanted was everyone together, As I look back on it now, I truly wonder if my parents had of m ade different and better choices due to their divorce and the sake of the children, would anything in my life been any different with my attitude or my outlook on things and especially family.I can remember blaming myself for several of the things that was wrong between my parents and also being a mediator between them. My grades in school did go down and I acted out to get the action I was lacking from having both of my parents there when I needed them. I guess that one good thing that did come out of my parents’ divorce was that I had a huge sense of survival and determination due to this divorce of my parents. I can also see where girls seem to make a strong tie with their mothers and become very strong women.I truly think that it has helped make me what I am today. I do not believe that I could of survived some of the abuse I have been through with drug addiction and recovery if I had not set my standards of survival at such a young age. There are so many ways that we can be coached and taught about what to do in this situation. It is a very sad case for a couple to have to come to this point in their lives today. Marriage is not seen as it should be. People take it for granted about having a lifelong mate and companion.We should all go back to the basis of the Bible but with the devil and the secular world taking over today, we as Christians have to stand up and play a huge role in our kids live. I have made a promise to myself that I will not repeat the cycle of my parents. Life is too precious and your children will be grown and gone before you know it. We endure enough pain in this world today and I refuse to allow anymore to be put into my children’s life due to me.This study has just made me a little more determined about living my marriage a a Christian example to my children and working through all the problems that marriage my bring in my direction. The statistics are growing but our God is even bigger.References Christian Standard B ible http://cpancf. com/articles_files/efffectsdivorceonchildren. asp) http://www. articlesbase. com/divorce-articles/the-positive-effects-of-divorce-on-children-2745699. html http://www. helium. com/items/1355536-what-are-positive-effects-divorce-children

The Role of Body Language Essay

The Role of Body Language Essay The Role of Body Language Essay Communication is one of the essential tools used for the exchange of ideas, feelings, and even visions. It is the activity of passing across the intended information through exchange of signals, writing, thoughts, behavior, and messages (Yates 433). However, for the process to be completed, several elements of the latter must be facilitated. The basic elements of communication include a potential sender, the intended message, and finally the targeted recipient. The way information is being transmitted depends on the medium. Moreover, the medium of transmission entirely rely on whether the communication is verbal or non-verbal. Non-verbal communication makes use of body languages, symbols, and signs as its ways of passing across any message (Yates 501). As per the requirements of the project, my area of specialization builds its concrete foundation on the body language as one of the means of communication. It is a form of physical and mental ability of man’s non-verbal communication that consists of gestures, facial expressions, body posture, and eye movements (Pease Pease 211). Body language is one of the most effective means of relaying very sensitive information and maintaining the confidentiality of the message passed across. The sole reason of my keen interest in this means of communication is the unique nature possessed by the latter as compared to other means. People continue using body language no matter the advancement in technology and development of most effective means. Analytical goals of my project draw its origin from the non-verbal forms of communication. To mention a few, the objectivity of the project was to understand the power and importance of excellent non-verbal communication, discover the necessary listening skills required for checking the shared understanding, modes of repairing the wrong communication and finally, understanding the effects of appropriate non-verbal communication and vocal tone in building rapport (Borg 457). Body language covers most of these objectives and helps in achieving the ultimate goals of communication as intended in this project. Assumptions made in this project can only be achievable if the means of communication put into consideration can be articulated to meet the requirements. Body languages are more advantageous and it can handle situations that cannot be handled by other means. The first advantage is that, this means can handle a situation where the sender or the recipient is handicapped or physically disabled (Borg 244). For example, a dumb person can use signs and facial expressions to relay information. He/she may be unable to utter the real words but the meaning of the message can be effectively understood through the body language. Noisy places may inconvenient verbal means but body language can comfortably be used in such environments. For example, in a factory where there is a lot of noise, the manager can instruct the employees and those under him through body language (Pease and Pease 466). The above means can also be used in passing across any sensitive information whose confidentiality is supposed to be maintained. Signals used between the sender and recipient may only be understood between the two and the third party may not get the real meaning of the information. The final advantage lies under the geographical difference between the sender and the recipient. The means may effectively be applicable if the two are at a visible distance but their spoken words may not be heard clearly. For example, if someone wants to greet a person, (Borg 558). Who is in a moving vehicle, waving a hand will be a more civilized way as compared to shouting. In addition, body language proves to be less expensive as compared to most sophisticated ones. Parties having an intension of cutting down the cost of communication can make use of body language. The above means loses its effectiveness in case the barriers exist in the environment under consideration. The major barrier is the case where both the sender and recipient are uninformed about the meaning of some of the signs and gestures. This will make the latter to be ineffective and therefore reducing its applicability. Common signals and body gestures known to many people cannot be used to relay any confidential information. Body gestures that carry more than one meaning may be difficult to be used as the involved parties may not get the intended message. Individuals lacking the body parts utilized in the communication are automatically excluded from using the means (Pease and Pease 674). This makes the latter to be limited to those people who possess the body parts that are supposed to be used in the process. For example, a blind person cannot use eye movements to relay the message; crippled people may also not use their legs or hands in the process of communication. Most of the time, body language is used by both handicapped and normal people so long as the parties understand the signs and body gestures well. Very large geographical difference may inconvenience use of signs and gestures in passing the meaning. This can only be done through digitized means where signs are being transmitted electronically. The project involved laying down the necessary strategies that will characterize the means of communication to be determined. The first strategy for this work involved testing the effective means of communication that can be used in a noisy environment. Various means of communication were to be tested in the latter environmental conditions and the effective method was to be pointed out. The second strategy was to determine the most appropriate means that can be used in relaying confidential messages (Pease and Pease 688). Almost all available means under the test proved ineffective and the one with the highest degree of confidentiality was determined. The final strategy was to cut down on the cost of communication. This meant to find the cheapest means of communication that can fully satisfy the process. The strategies outlined above almost gave the expected results (Oxford 509). The rhetorical barriers and advantages mentioned earlier in this project gave direct reflections of what was to be done and the ultimate goals were absolutely fulfilled. The first strategy of noisy environmental condition was fully satisfied by the rhetoric advantage of body language as the means of communication. Body language proved communicative under the tested conditions. The second strategy of relaying confidential messages was previously reflected by the rhetoric advantage of body language. The latter gave maximum satisfaction in passing across confidential information. The final strategy of cutting down the cost of the process of communication gave out several means of communication. Some of the verbal means of communication met the standards unexpectedly and the strategy was to be articulated to meet the requirements. However, the adjustments made met the satisfactory standard of making body languag e as the only means of communication. The rhetoric ended up being effective in analyzing the arguments. The rhetoric arguments proved perfect in the analysis and strategies gave full support for the approval of arguments. Documented statistics for the related case study almost projected the same results as the one that were rhetorically reflected in the project (Oxford 599). However, in this project, the strategized conclusion could not have been drawn from the rhetoric barriers and advantages, putting the last strategy into consideration, which almost dissatisfied the expected outcome. The argument of whether to rely on the rhetoric reflections or not, in finding the most appropriate means of communication in the project almost proved effective. However, the rhetoric reflection failed in giving the details of flexibility of the means and the ability of the latter to accommodate the upcoming challenges (Melkote 444). Body language plays many roles in the current society. Considering the technological advancements, this means of communication is seen primitive and cannot be relied on. However, what people are not supposed to forget is that, this means forms part of the most immediate means of communication before other means can be put in place. People who do not have a common communicative language find it hard to communicate with one another (Melkote 408). The only immediate way is by use of body language. In normal life circumstances, emotions find their roots in body language and twisting of some body parts may turn out passing a strong message to the targeted recipient. People around the globe appreciate body language and the roles it plays. Ideas of generating the most sophisticated means of communication are being generated by body language. What is most important is understanding the ideology of communication that is to be achieved by the scientists. Having hopes in the unpromising inventions makes people forget that the effective means lies in our bodies and the only task is to learn how to use it. Learning body Language is one of the most interesting things that one can do and in most cases, it turns out to be more of a fun. Do you need help with writing an essay about Body Language? Just visit our custom writing service to order high-quality customized essays online.

Anxiety Disorders

Anxiety Disorders Free Online Research Papers Introduction We have all felt the effects of stress at one time or another. Our bodies tell us when we need to slow down because we are overloaded. If stress continues unchecked, it can develop into a more serious problem called anxiety. It has been estimated that over 20 million Americans suffer from an anxiety disorder at any one time and that another 30 million will experience the problem at least once during their lifetime (Hunt, 2005). However, anxiety is a normal reaction to stress. Slight anxiety can actually motivate us in school or at work to perform better and achieve results. However, high levels of anxiety, especially over extended periods of time, is quite detrimental and often requires some kind of medical intervention. Individuals affected with this disorder experience an inappropriate and excessive level of arousal, which is often followed by feelings of uncertainty, fear, and apprehension. Consistent stress and anxiety can greatly affect our spirit, making life seem less meaningful. However, there is no one theory of anxiety that explains the various clinical and biological data. Many theories have suggested possible etiological factors in the development of anxiety; the three main theories are psychodynamic, behavioral, and biological (Hansell and Damour, 2005). Psychodynamic View Freud proposed that anxiety is the result of unconscious psychic conflicts. When these conflicts, or forbidden impulses, threaten to become conscious, anxiety is experienced. Anxiety then becomes a signal to the ego to take defensive actions to suppress it. When the defense mechanism is successful, anxiety is lowered and a sense of security returns. However, if the conflict is intense and the defense mechanism is not successful, symptoms will display in the form of phobias, regression or ritualistic behaviors. Cognitive Behavioral View Behavioral theory suggests that anxiety is a result of learned or conditioned responses. Techniques utilized in the treatment of phobias and obsessive-compulsive behaviors support this theory. According to this hypothesis, anxiety results from a series of responses to certain stimuli. Over time, a person would develop a learned or conditioned response to the stimuli. This concept suggests that anxiety can be learned and unlearned as a result of experience. Biological View From the biological perspective, manifestations of anxiety may be experienced by physiological irregularity. Anxiety may be a warning of an underlying physiological process. In this case, anxiety could be caused by physical disease or abnormality and not necessarily by an emotional conflict. For example, people with multiple sclerosis, brain tumor, diabetes, or, anemia may experience anxiety stemming from their physiological processes. Examples of Anxiety Disorders Though there are varying categories of anxiety disorders, the most common are Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD), Panic Disorders, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD), Phobias, and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) manifests itself with feelings of chronic and persistent anxiety that last for six months or longer. A person who is experiencing GAD often feels as if they have no control or management capacity over their anxiety. This person may experience insomnia, restlessness, fatigue, uncontrolled behavior, and muscle tension. GAD can also result in a number of physical symptoms such as sweating, dry mouth, and tension headaches. This disorder can be debilitating enough to interrupt an individual’s social and professional life. Generalized Anxiety Disorder Generalized anxiety disorder originates from two main factors: biological vulnerability to anxiety and stress due to negative environmental stressors. An individual may be genetically predisposed or have a natural inner tendency to live life in a tense manner. Any undue amounts of stress can move this naturally tense person into a level of nervousness that gradually moves into worry, then create physiological changes, and finally lead to GAD. Individuals affected with GAD show less responsiveness on most physiological measures such as heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration rate. They often experience chronic muscle tension, as well as intense cognitive processing in the frontal lobes, especially in the left hemisphere of the brain. This indicates worry without images, which cause the individual to experience extreme levels of worry without having the ability to create images for their current thought. Individuals with GAD are extremely sensitive to threat, especially threat with personal bearing. They seem to be more aware and attentive than people without GAD, and this awareness seems to be unconscious. They usually avoid negative effects associated with the threat at hand; therefore overlooking what may be a solution to their problem. This prevents the person from facing the feared situation and makes adaptation difficult. Obsessive Compulsive Disorder Obsessive Compulsive Disorder also known as OCD is a chronic mental disorder most commonly characterized by intrusive, repetitive thoughts. These thinking patterns produce a compulsive behavior that the person feels driven to perform. Often, the sufferer would follow a personal routine applying special rules aimed at preventing some imagined anxiety-producing events. The obsession aspect of OCD is where individuals experience troubling repetitive thoughts, images, or impulses that are not only upsetting, but may not make much sense to the individual. Typical obsessions are in the area of cleanliness, such as a fear of germs, contamination, and dirt. The compulsion aspect of OCD is where individuals seek to cope with or manage their anxiety using routine, methodic actions known as rituals. These compulsions somehow help the sufferer negate worrying thoughts, but usually the impact of the rituals is short-lived causing the person to repeat them. Both obsessions and compulsions are troubling and embarrassing, so many people with this condition often hide their fears and rituals though they are not able to stop acting on them. A majority of the people affected by OCD have both obsessions and compulsions with only a small amount having only one aspect of the malady. There are a number of treatment methods for OCD ranging from psychotherapy to self-help and medication. Cognitive behavioral therapy has been shown to be the most effective form of therapy for because it challenges the dysfunctional and irrational beliefs and thoughts that lie underneath the obsession, as well as the fear that such obsessions produce. During this type of therapy, an OCD sufferer may have a dual approach of gradual exposure to the feared stimulus combined with medication that tempers the anxious emotional state. In regard to the latter, it is believed that individuals with OCD have a lower level of the neurotransmitter serotonin. Serotonin has an important role in regard to proper regulation of mood, sleep, and other functions. A class of antidepressant that has been shown to treat OCD most effectively is the serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Antidepressants can help with the treatment of OCD because they increase levels of serotonin in which OCD sufferers have been known to have a lesser amounts. Specific antidepressants that have been effective in treating OCD include Clomipramine (Anafranil), Fluvoxamine (Luvox), Fluoxetine (Prozac), Paroxetine (Paxil), Sertraline (Zoloft), and Citalopram (Celexa). Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder In comparison to GAD and OCD, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) may be the most experientially troubling of the anxiety disorders. Also known by popular phrases such as railway spine, stress syndrome, shell shock, and battle fatigue, the sufferer of PTSD is haunted by horrific experiences that have attached the person’s emotions, psyche, and senses (visual, auditory, and even olfactory). Such events might be rape, various forms of abuse, natural disasters, and battle experience, all coming back to the sufferer in such forms as flashbacks and nightmares that can significantly impair social and occupational functioning long after the event has passed. Similar to GAD, there also seems to be a negative impact in certain brain functioning with PTSD. For example, soldiers who experienced intense fighting in the Vietnam War with PTSD showed a 20% reduction in the volume of their hippocampus compared with veterans who did not have PTSD. In addition to this evidence, it has been theorized that the amygdala may be in a semi-permanent state of hyperarousal, where the sufferer is not able to â€Å"turn off† the hypersensitivity of the amygdala, which regulates the fight or flight response. Treatment of PTSD has been greatly helped by Horowitz’s creation of the Stress Response Syndrome. This is a model that maps a common pattern of typical responses to stressors, real or imagined. In regard to the sometimes unpredictable and shifting symptoms of PTSD, the Stress Response Syndrome has helped therapists with a logical and phased outline of emotional or impulsive states in which to guide a PTSD sufferer through. These states are: Stressful event, Outcry, a dual state of Intrusion and Denial, Working through, and finally Completion. It has been theorized though, because of the sometimes shocking memories associated with PTSD events, that sufferers may not adequately ever reach the final state of completion. This may be especially true because PTSD often enter deep episodes of depression, substance abuse as a coping method, and even periods of psychosis. Like other anxiety disorders, treatment is varied for PTSD sufferers with psychotherapy and medication. Again, a cognitive behavioral approach is advised, especially by using gradual exposure or remembrance of the stressor with the therapist being careful to not have the patient experience the exposure too deeply. Medications are meant to manage PTSD symptoms from intrusive flashbacks (antidepressants and antipsychotics), hyperarousal (antidepressants, benzodiazepines, and anticonvulsants), psychosis (atypical antipsychotics and anticonvulsants), depression (antidepressants), and panic attacks (antidepressants, MAO inhibitors, and benzodiazepines). A Non-Traditional Setting for Anxiety Besides traumatic situations, anxiety can also surface in areas that are not seen as traditionally stressful, for example, sports. Athletes must often experience and manage various levels of nervousness, apprehension, and fear. Sport psychologists believe that anxiety is a reaction that is measured using various scales through the observation of cognitive and physiological symptoms that appear in reaction to a stimulus. In relation to the environmental stressors associated with sports, this could be upcoming performance, intense competition, or possibly the expectation put on athletes by friends and family. Anxiety in connection with sports is a provocative topic for research since its management can affect a persons athletic performance positively or negatively (Mellalieu, Hanton OBrien, 2004). The relationship between anxiety and sports is a complex one, since it involves anxiety responses that are unique for each athlete along with the variable of different sports. For example, anxiety responses felt by athletes in an individual, non-contact sport (such as tennis) might differ greatly from anxiety responses felt by athletes in a team, contact sport (such as football). This disparity elicits different anxiety responses due to the divergent task demands of the sports (Mellalieu, Hanton OBrien, 2004). Unlike general sufferers of anxiety disorders, athletes on the other hand have a kind of built-in outlet for the anxiety as well. In fact, there is a great amount of literature regarding the beneficial relationship of anxiety in conjunction with sports. In particular, there have been many studies that have exclusively focused on children, and how beneficial sports activities have done to improve their self-esteem, confidence, mood, and mental health, in spite of the presence of anxiety as well. For an in depth look at this specific subject, further research is required. References Carlson, Neil R. (2007). Physiology of Behavior. Boston, MA: Allyn Bacon Antai-Otong, D. (2003). Current treatment of generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing, 41, 20-28. Gioia, M. C., Cerasa, A., Di Lucente, L., Brunelli, S., Castellano, V. Traballesi, M. (2006). Psychological impact of sports activity in spinal cord injury. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine Science in Sports 16, 412-416. Hansell, J., Damour, L. (2005). Abnormal psychology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Hunt, D (2005). What your doctor may not tell you about anxiety, phobias, panic Attacks. The all-natural program that can help you conquer your fears. New York, New York: Grand Central Publishing. Mellalieu, S. D., Hanton, S. OBrien, M. (2004). Intensity and direction of competitive anxiety as a function of sport type and experience. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine Science in Sports 14, 326-334. Research Papers on Anxiety DisordersThree Concepts of PsychodynamicThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseResearch Process Part OneIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of SelfEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenGenetic EngineeringThe Project Managment Office SystemUnreasonable Searches and SeizuresPersonal Experience with Teen Pregnancy

Communication skills Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Communication skills - Case Study Example Additionally cars taxi also owns a garage to enhance maintenance and car wash services for its cabs. The Dubai expo 2020 is forecasted to enhance economic growth in the UAE region, just as the previous world expos have impacted their hosting places. Large population’s means increased demand, and if service providers capture this idea and plan to accommodate it, then sales ought to improve as well. Operating in the transport industry, cars taxi has strategized to make the best out of it. With many people streaming into the country, high quality transport provision would improve the events success. At the moment, Dubai is a highly populated emirate, which poses a risk of congestion. However, the government has improved the transportation sector facilitating various transport modes such public buses, cabs, trains and metro. Through inclusion of private sector, transport needs of the citizens have been catered for making it very efficient. Conversely the expo will see more than 25 million people stream to the emirate which is more than ten times Dubai population. As matter of fact, the population is too huge for Dubai’s real estate’s companies to accommodate; hence many will have to travel to lo other regions to look for accommodation. Moreover, most of them will use the opportunity to tour united emirates hence cab service demand is prospected increase by at least five hundred percent. These poses a problem of demand exceeding supply, not excluding congestion as it happened in china (Dai, Bao, Chen 2010)and the hectic queues and/or maybe traffic jam. Secondly, the population explosion contains people from all over the world and hence expects different attitudes, different cultures as well as morals and religion. Being used to the natives, cars taxi workers might mess up with some potential customers and thus literary disturb business (Wilson, 2013). Note that, following strict

Compare and contrast the flood story Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Compare and contrast the flood story - Essay Example Despite the chronological and spatial disparity between the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Hebrew Bible, striking similarities abound between them, as shall be seen in the ensuing discussion. The Hebrew Bible and the Epic of Gilgamesh agree that the global flooding took place in ancient times. For instance, the Chaldean Flood Tablets have been established to date back to at least 2000 BC, while the Genesis account, 1450-1410 BC. It is also interesting to note that in both accounts, the universal flood is presented as divine intervention. For instance, in the Chaldean Flood Tablets, there is a description on how Ea, the Babylonian deity reaching a decision to extirpate all life, with the ark dwellers being the only exception. It is for this reason that Ea, the creator of heaven and earth chose Utnapishtim and instructed him to make a six-storey ark. In Genesis, the flood is also a divine intervention by the Judeo-Christian God, Jehovah. He decides to end life forms on earth, chooses (to save) Noah and his family and instructs Noah on how on make the ark. Heidel divulges that in both cases, the flood is universal and brings an end to life forms, particularly, mankind, terrestrial life and all flying species. The flood covered all physical features such as land and mountain. Because of this, an ark is given to the main character. In the Hebrew Bible, the main character is Noah, while in the Epic of Gilgamesh, it is Utnapishtim. In both accounts, Noah and Utnapishtim are chosen because they are righteous men. It is also important to note that in both accounts, the arks are very huge, so that they can contain different animal species. Both arks in Genesis and the Epic of Gilgamesh have at least a door and a window (Heidel, 44). In both accounts, samples of animal species were to be taken aboard the ark. The animals are taken in male-and-female, for the purpose of